A logical place to introduce the theory is to consider where the great divergence in physical science begins. Einstein’s theory of General Relativity (GR) and Quantum’s embrace of discrete energy forged a great divide in physics that continues today. My grandmother, a lady with much influence on my life, was born in 1919 and never learned to read or write. However, she shared many timeless nuggets of truth with me, which great education cannot always teach. One of these was that if you are building something like a shed or a garden and notice something wrong, go back to where you first noticed the problem and examine why it started. It is not always easy to find. Often, success obfuscates any underlying weaknesses. Significant success usually conjures the belief that it must be correct if there is so much success. This is the case with Einstein’s General Relativity. The amount of success is so overwhelming that people often overlook or blatantly ignore weaknesses.
This also happens with Newtonian physics. There was a great reluctance for the scientific community to move away from the mighty laws of Newton, which may have been an error or oversight. Yet, once these oversights were discovered (like light traveling instantly and universal time), the scientific community did not readily move away from the laws. Instead, they held to them and often rejected or heavily resisted any changes. The same may be said concerning General Relativity. One may think GR has never been proven wrong! I agree, but it has areas where it cannot wield its logic, such as quantum or discrete behavior. GR cherry-picked the tenants of Riemannian geometry and created a rule-breaking metric that can be negative, zero, or positive. Could this be why there is a singularity? As will be shown, there is a shift in the metric of a constant “length” within Schwarzschild’s solution. This is where my grandmother’s wisdom shines through. One should go back to where the issue started and evaluate everything from that point to alleviate the problem.
As discussed previously, Einstein appeared to fixate on Riemannian geometry after corresponding with Marcel Grossmann. Is it possible this fixation biased Einstein’s journey to a solution? It is here the investigation began into where the divide may have started. This book will revisit his choice of math to highlight areas of potential issues that were tossed aside or overlooked as trivial because of the tremendous success of Einstein’s theory. Here, one will start by returning to Newton’s laws and abandoning Riemannian geometry. By doing so, it may be possible to derive a working model without restricting it to a modified Riemannian metric.
Consider Newton’s first law, which states that an object will not change its motion unless a force acts on it. This is for an object at rest (relative to an observer) or in uniform motion (relative to an observer). A corollary from this law is space (the vacuum) has by a priori an attribute of coupling to an object (matter). The coupling decides the force required to change an object’s motion (Newton’s second law). Newton’s third law states that when two objects collide (or interact with each other), they produce equal magnitude and opposite directional forces on each other. Again, and a priori, the vacuum maintains a universal and constant propensity to couple to matter. NUVO theory exploits this a priori by asking, “What if this a priori is not accurate?“.
Suppose this a priori is not constant but varies throughout the vacuum. In that case, several physical measurements and physical conservations within classical mechanics will be in error as they, too, base their findings on this a priori. For instance, the measurement of time. In all measurements discussed and used in this book, the unit of time is calculated from a rhythmic oscillation of a physical object (or the interaction with the physical object). If, at one location in the vacuum, the coupling of the oscillating object differs from another location, the measurement of time will appear skewed or dilated between the two locations. A force interacting between two objects will not obey Newton’s third law if the coupling of the vacuum is not invariant to all observers. If force is affected by this coupling, all derived units from force (Energy, Power, etc…) will also have an inaccurate derivation because of the acceptance of this a priori.
A starting hypothesis is the vacuum of space has and maintains a propensity to couple with mass. The measurement of this propensity is the magnitude of the coupling. The presence of mass reduces this coupling’s propensity of space.
Space (the vacuum) has a finite magnitude of coupling strength to matter. The available magnitude of space for coupling to matter is proportional to the amount of mass present in space and the distance from the mass to which it is coupled.
Several definitions are introduced to properly describe NUVO’s investigation into this exploitation of the a priori. They are:
Matter’s coupling to space, and space’s coupling to matter.
This definition is not new but clarified in NUVO’s theory. Within the definition, it only defines the act of matter’s coupling to space and space’s coupling to matter. There is no implying that inertia is constant for all matter and locations within the vacuum. The definition defines the act of matter and space coupling. The second definition segregates inertia into two components:
The magnitude of matter’s coupling to space (the measurement of matter’s propensity to couple with space).
This definition is in the spirit of inertia. Still, it is developed because of the subtle differences and removal of ambiguity from inertial mass, inertial frames, and other areas of established inertia definitions used in calculations. It is half of what makes up inertia, the matter’s interaction half. For matter and space to couple, both must maintain the ability to interlock and couple with each other. For instance, if two particles with opposite charges come together, both sides of the interaction (each particle) must maintain the ability to couple with the other, or no interaction occurs. Thus, if one particle is a neutral particle and the other a charged particle, there is no Coulomb coupling between them. The same principle is applied when defining inertia; it is mass’s role in its interaction with space. Next is the other half of inertia:
The magnitude of space’s coupling with matter (the measurement of space’s propensity to couple with matter).
This definition is in the same spirit as the pinertia definition. It distinguishes the attribute of space’s propensity to couple with matter from matter’s propensity to couple with space. Continuing:
Any particle with zero magnitude pinertia is termed massless; by a priori, all massless particles move at the speed of light in a vacuum.
Pinertia’s definition provides clarity on what a massless particle is within NUVO. Any particle without the ability to couple to space (zero magnitude pinertia) is, by definition, a massless particle. The definition does not prevent the particle from having the ability to interact with other particles. It simply means a particle with zero pinertia is massless and moves at the speed of light. Loosely, this is analogous to a massless particle moving through a “friction-less” space, while a massive particle has friction (coupling) when moving through space.
Next, space is grouped into several categories, classifying the state of sinertia.
A volume of space where the magnitude of sinertia is at its maximum ( a natural global limit).
Exemplar defines a space where sinertia’s magnitude is at its maximum value. In a system with an interaction that reduces sinertia (in NUVO theory, one such interaction with space is the presence of a gravitational potential), space no longer maintains its maximum sinertia magnitude for coupling to matter. Exemplar space holds no special physical attribute and may be argued it does not exist in the physical world (since gravity is assumed to have an infinite reach across space). Within NUVO, a transformation scalar is used for observations. In Exemplar space, by definition, this scalar value is 1. For this reason, it is favored mathematically to isolate Exemplar space and identify it separately from other spaces. Next, the counterpart to Examplar space is:
A volume of space where the magnitude of sinertia is less than the maximum.
Privo space represents all space that is not Exemplar space. It defines space where sinertia is degraded from its maximum magnitude. Finally, space has a final area related to sinertia, it is:
A volume of space where the magnitude of sinertia is zero.
Kenos space is the opposite of Exemplar space, it is a space that is completely depleted of sinertia to couple with mass. It is not a space that has no sinertia. Instead, it is a space whose sinertia is being degraded to the point it no longer can provide sinertia to any other matter. As with Exemplar space, there may not be a physical space meeting this criterion, but within NUVO, it may be beneficial at times to distinguish this space from other spaces, even if only as a limit.
Next, there are a minimum of two types of effects on sinertia in space they are:
When an event causes a change in space’s sinertia and triggers a propagation of sinertia change throughout space.
Within NUVO there are two methods in which time may be dilated. One is by gravitational potential; the second is by acceleration. The gravitational potential affects all locations around it. Consider a large mass A and a much smaller mass b. If the mass of one or the other changes, it will affect the time dilation at the location of the other mass. A delta time dilation will propagate throughout space from the point of origin of the mass’s magnitude change. Thus, any time dilation that propagates through space is, by definition, a global field effect.
When an event does not cause a change in space’s available sinertia. There is no triggering of propagation throughout space.
Unlike the global field effect, the local field effect only affects the local observer, and the effect does not propagate throughout space. In NUVO, this is the acceleration of a particle. For instance, a particle A and a particle B exist. If particle B accelerates with respect to A, particle B will experience time dilation, but the time dilation will not propagate throughout space, as in the case with a gravitational potential. Instead, it will only affect the local accelerating particle B. Regardless of the acceleration of B, A will never experience time dilation at its location (other than the gravitational effect caused by a moving mass). Whereas in a gravitational potential, the magnitude of mass of particle B will always affect time dilation at particle A’s location.
Consider the GPS satellite group. If one satellite passes close to a “stationary” clock, the stationary clock will not be affected by the acceleration of the passing satellite. Yet, the gravitational effect of the mass of the passing satellite will affect the stationary clock. This is an example of a local effect (the accelerating satellite passing by) and a global effect (the mass of the satellite passing by). Only the global effect of the passing satellite affects the neighboring clocks. The local effect only affects the local clock under acceleration.
The GPS example also shows the difference between sinertia and pinertia. Sinertia is affected and propagates through the field, affecting all clocks about it. The acceleration affects the pinertia of the accelerating satellite and affects the clock on the satellite. The change in pinertia because of acceleration does not propagate to other clocks as it passes by.
In NUVO theory, there is a flux within space of sinertia. It is tempting in NUVO theory to consider this flux aether. This position is not currently held by NUVO theory, but NUVO may provide a method by which this sinertia flow will be observed and measured. If one defines space’s sinertia as aether, then a path for NUVO theory to embrace aether may appear.
With these postulates, Newton’s laws will be revisited and revised to implement them. Implementing these postulates will show that most, if not all, of General Relativity can be duplicated. An additional finding is that at very small volumes of space, NUVO produces a noticeable discrete shift in observable measurements. This discrete shift in observable measurements may provide a path into quantum mechanics. With these definitions in place, it is now possible to introduce the postulates of NUVO theory.
- Postulate 1: A volume of space has a finite magnitude of sinertia.
- Postulate 2: Matter reduces the magnitude of space’s sinertia.
- Postulate 3: Matter’s pinertia (coupling) is dependent upon space’s sinertia at the matter’s location in space.
- Postulate 4: Space attempts to maintain an equilibrium of sinertia across all space (thus, sinertia forms a flux in a volume of space).
- Postulate 5: Mass causes an expansion of space-time proportional to the magnitude of the mass.